Skip to main content
Download PDF

Is type 2 diabetes mellitus a vascular disease (atheroscleropathy) with hyperglycemia a late manifestation? The role of NOS, NO, and redox stress.

Cardiovascular Diabetology volume 2, Article number: 2 (2003) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Cardiovascular disease accounts for at least 85 percent of deaths for those patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Additionally, 75 percent of these deaths are due to ischemic heart disease.

Hypothesis

Is type 2 diabetes mellitus a vascular disease (atheroscleropathy) with hyperglycemia a late manifestation? The role of NOS, NO, and redox stress.

Testing of the hypothesis

The vulnerable three arms of the eNOS reaction responsible for the generation of eNO is discussed in relation to the hypothesis: (1). The L-arginine substrate. (2). The eNOS enzyme. (3). The BH4 cofactor.

Implications of the hypothesis

If we view T2DM as a vascular disease initially with a later manifestation of hyperglycemia, we may be able to better understand and modify the multiple toxicities associated with insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, overt T2DM, and accelerated atherosclerosis (atheroscleropathy). The importance of endothelial nitric oxide synthase, endothelial nitric oxide, tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), L-arginine, and redox stress are discussed in relation to endothelial cell dysfunction and the development and progression of atheroscleropathy and T2DM. In addition to the standard therapies to restore endothelial cell dysfunction and stabilization of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques, this article will discuss the importance of folic acid (5MTHF) supplementation in this complex devastating disease process.

Atheroscleropathy and hyperglycemia could be early and late manifestations, respectively, in the natural progressive history of T2DM.

Background

The historical discovery of the enzyme family nitric oxide synthases (NOS) in 1989 is relatively recent and we now know there are three distinct isoforms of NOS: neural NOS-1 (nNOS); inducible NOS-2 (iNOS); and endothelial NOS-3 (eNOS). These three isoforms were discovered in the above order from 1991–1994 [1]. eNOS, the rate limiting enzyme responsible for the production of endothelial derived nitric oxide (eNO) was sequenced and cloned in 1992 [2, 3]. Each NOS enzyme has its own unique amino acid structure sharing some 50 percent homology indicating a common ancestral background. Additionally, each NOS isoform is transcribed from a separate gene (table 1).

Table 1 Comparisons of the human NOS enzymes
Full size table

Nitric oxide, voted the molecule of the year by Science Magazine in 1992 [4] has been shown to be an extremely important signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system and in 1998 Furchgott RF, Ignarro LJ, and Murad F. were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology "for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system" (tables 2,3).

Table 2 The positve protective effects of eNOS
Full size table
Table 3 Janus – faced properties of NO
Full size table

This relatively brief and recent history of NOS and NO is in contrast to the ancient history of atherosclerosis which dates to the time of the Egyptians. The theories of atherosclerosis are legion and the atherosclerologists of today have a proud history upon which to build for the future [5].

The endothelial cell, such a central player, responsible for remodeling of the arterial vessel wall in atherosclerosis (intimopathy) and responsible for the synthesis of eNOS and subsequent eNO production will be discussed and related to the accelerated atherosclerosis (atheroscleropathy) associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) [5, 8–11].

This review will discuss dysfunction of the eNOS enzyme and its potential to uncouple, resulting in the endothelial cell becoming a net producer of damaging superoxide (O2') instead of the protective eNO (tables 4,5) [6]. The lack of eNO from the endothelial cell is related to the development of atheroscleropathy and is related to the underproduction and / or the excessive consumption of eNO by redox stress. The uncoupling of this complex enzyme will aid in the understanding of the development of atheroscleropathy and the role of oxidative and reductive stress (redox stress) in patients with T2DM [7, 8].

Table 4 Lab – garbage acronym
Full size table
Table 5 eNOS reaction the three critical arms
Full size table

Definitions

It is important to set forth the authors' working definitions before proceeding with this review.

ATHEROSCLEROSIS is a systemic dysfunctional endothelial, focal occurring, chronic inflammatory, fibroprolifertive, angiogenic, prothrombotic, multifactorial disease of the arterial intima caused by the retention of modified low density lipoproteins, hemodynamic stress, and accelerated by redox stress [5, 8–11].

ATHEROSCLEROPATHY: The term used to describe the unique accelerated atherosclerosis observed in and associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, prediabetes, and overt T2DM which is driven by reactive oxygen species associated with multiple toxicities (table 6) [8].

Table 6 The manifold toxicities of insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome and T2DM.
Full size table

T2DM is a heterogeneous, multifactorial, polygenic disease characterized by a defect in insulin's secretion (the beta cell secretory defect) and action (insulin resistance) which results in elevated glucose [8, 12].

T2DM may be viewed as a dynamic continuum of five stages (table 9) [12].

eNOS and eNO

Chromosome number 7 contains the vascular eNOS gene that encodes the transcription and synthesis of the 1203 amino acid protein enzyme eNOS. eNOS is located uniquely within caveolae of the plasma membrane which allows the monolayer of endothelial cells to compensate if its fellow cellmates become dysfunctional in order to maintain eNO production.

Once conceptualized, that a specific and unique gene (eNOS, iNOS, nNOS) encodes the transcription of NO in a specific organ system, the opposing faces of this highly specialized, small, bioactive, and readily diffusible gas NO can be better understood (table 2, 3) [13].

eNO is a natural occurring, endogenous, chain breaking antioxidant synthesized by the endothelial cell. eNO and superoxide are related to a healthy and dysfunctional endothelium, respectively [8].

THE HEALTHY ENDOTHELIUM IS A NET PRODUCER OF ENDOTHELIAL NITRIC OXIDE [eNO].

THE ACTIVATED, DYSFUNCTIONAL ENDOTHELIUM IS A NET PRODUCER OF SUPEROXIDE [O2'] ASSOCIATED WITH T2DM AND ATHEROSCLEROPATHY

There are at least three arms in the eNOS reaction capable of producing endothelial cell dysfunction with resultant redox stress to the intima and islet resulting in atheroscleropathy and a progressive decline in beta cell function within the vulnerable islet.

Presentation of the hypothesis

Is type 2 diabetes mellitus a vascular disease (atheroscleropathy) with hyperglycemia a late manifestation? The role of NOS, NO, and redox stress.

Testing of the hypothesis

The following eNOS reaction demonstrates the location of the vulnerable three arms of the eNOS reaction responsible for the generation of eNO.

IF THE eNOS REACTION IS UNCOUPLED: THEN THE REACTION IS:

L-arginine is uncoupled and not converted to NO and L-citrulline (figure 1) (tables 3,4).

Figure 1
figure1

Oxygen reacts with the eNOS enzyme in which the BH4 cofactor has coupled NAD(P)H with L-arginine to be converted to NO and L-citrulline. When uncoupling occurs the NAD(P)H reacts with O2 and the endothelial cell becomes a net producer of superoxide (O2').

Full size image

THE L-ARGININE ARM

The substrate L-arginine is an essential amino acid and is usually not thought to be rate limiting (with the exception of high demands in a dysfunctional endothelial state such as atherosclerosis or the atheroscleropathy associated with T2DM).

Arginine deficiency is a rare occurrence, however, there can be competitive inhibition by the endogenously produced asymmetrical dimethylarginine (ADMA) and nitroarginine. ADMA is emerging as an important cause of endothelial cell dysfunction.

It is an endogenously produced competive inhibitor of L-arginine which results in a relative deficiency of the natural substrate for the eNOS enzyme to produce eNO. ADMA accumulates by either a process of increased synthesis by the protein arginine N-methyltransferases (PRMTs) or decreased elimination by the enzyme dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolose (DDAH) [14–17].

DDAH selectively hydrolyzes ADMA to L-citrulline and dimethylamine, so that the higher the DDAH activity, the lower the ADMA levels. Importantly, inhibition of DDAH activity results in increased ADMA levels. Both native and oxidized LDL-cholesterol have been shown to up-regulate PRMT while causing a decrease in the activity of DDAH [18]. This results in an elevation of ADMA levels contributing to endothelial cell dysfunction and increased oxidative stress to the intima with subsequent accelerated atherosclerosis.

There are multiple causes for the elevation in ADMA levels (figure 2). Each of these toxicities relate to the A-FLIGHT acronym responsible for the production of ROS (table 6). Recently, Faldetta CM, Laurenti O, and Desideri G [19] were able to demonstrate in both normal human subjects and T2DM human patients that acute L-arginine infusion decreased plasma total homocysteine concentrations, counteract oxidative stress, and increased the availability of nitric oxide.

Figure 2
figure2

The multiple stressors causing uncoupling of the eNOS enzyme by decreased DDAH and the increased endogenous inhibitor of eNOS: ADMA.

Full size image

In summary, the relative deficiency of L-arginine due to elevation of ADMA levels contribute to oxidative stress and result in the atheroscleropathy associated with insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, and overt T2DM.

THE eNOS ARM

Important agonists for the activation of the eNOS enzyme (table 7) play an important role in the production of eNO.

Table 7 eNOS AGONISTS
Full size table

If there is a complete loss of eNOS enzyme as in the eNOS -/- knockout mouse model of Duplain and Sherrer [20] insulin resistance, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia develop. Their findings indicate that eNOS plays a major role in the regulation of insulin sensitivity. To have an effect on atheroscleropathy and T2DM it would not require a complete knockout of the gene but just one or two changes in the 1203 amino acid protein structure in the eNOS enzyme.

Such a gene polymorphism does exist and may become a major player in the polygenic causes of T2DM and atheroscleropathy:

Glu298 → Asp Gene Polymorphism (Glu298 → Asp GP)

eNOS may be impaired by abnormal structure and or function that occurs in gene polymorphisms.

One of the first significant eNOS gene polymorphisms described to date is Glu 298 → Asp. This amino acid substitution is responsible for a statistically significant increased frequency of hypertension and spastic angina [21]. Also, described in a different set of patients is the occurrence of increased abnormal coronary angiographic findings of atherosclerosis and an association of increased events [22–24].

The Glu298 → Asp GP is responsible for a decrease in basal NO production in healthy subjects according to the publication by Veldman BA et al [25].

This gene polymorphism then could interact with other gene polymorphisms and especially environmental conditions such as smoking, obesity, and the A-FLIGHT toxicities of IR, MS, PD, and overt T2DM. Or as in the hypothesis, could be responsible for the development of IR and MS which then would progress to PD or overt T2DM. We now have a Japanese population, a UK population, and an Italian population that correlates Glu298 → Asp GP to atherosclerosis and CAD events [23–25].

These findings indicate that the eNOS gene is important to the development of accelerated atherosclerosis → atheroscleropathy. Furthermore, these three distinct patient populations indicate that this gene polymorphism is widely distributed throughout diverse patient populations and according to Veldman [25] is present in approximately 10 % of patient populations.

Recently, Noiri E and colleagues have shown that there is a significant association of the Glu298 → Asp GP and end stage renal disease in T2DM which once again points to the importance of the endothelial cell and the eNOS reaction [26].

Since eNOS contains 1203 amino acids there is the possibility of other gene polymorphisms within the eNOS enzyme that have not been identified at this time. Additionally, this gene polymorphism could interact with other gene polymorphisms of other endogenous antioxidant enzymes in the T2DM patient as we know their antioxidant reserve is compromised (tables 6,8) [7, 8, 12].

Table 8 Antioxidants: catalytic/enzymatic inactivation of free radicals.
Full size table
Table 9 The five stages of T2DM: the natural progressive history of T2DM.
Full size table

As the human genome unfolds there may be other related important gene polymorphisms identified.

The BH4 ARM

Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) is the necessary cofactor for coupling L-arginine to the NAD(P)H oxidase enzyme in order for L-arginine to be oxidized to NO and L-citrulline. The importance of this cofactor and its mechanism is just starting to emerge.

If this cofactor is not functioning properly the entire eNOS reaction uncouples and the endothelium becomes a net producer of superoxide [O2'] through the uncoupled NAD(P)H oxidase reaction. In addition to BH4 being the necessary cofactor it also serves as a naturally occurring antioxidant capable of scavenging ROS such as superoxide O2' and perioxynitrite [ONOO']. If BH4 is deficient in supply or function the eNOS reaction not only is capable of uncoupling with subsequent excess [O2'] and [ONOO'] but also is at a disadvantage in that there would be less BH4 to scavenge these local occurring reactive oxygen species being produced in excess amounts [27].

It is important to note that a direct effect of folic acid is to keep this important cofactor BH4 intact so that it can maintain coupling of the eNOS reaction.

The lowering of homocysteine is an indirect effect of folic acid aiding in the decreased production of ADMA due to the effect of Hcy on DDAH. Folic acid given to patients with T2DM have an improvement of endothelial relaxation before Hcy has time to be lowered. It works almost immediately before the Hcy is lowered [28, 29].

When you look at the three arms of importance for the eNOS reaction there are two possible changes in the treatment paradigm (in addition to lowering the substrates of the A-FLIGHT toxicities (table 6) and the RAAS acronym [8]) for these patients who suffer from endothelial dysfunction associated with atheroscleropathy, IR, MS, PD, and T2DM.

First, we need to take a global risk reduction approach (by treating each risk factor in the A-FLIGHT toxicities acronym in order to decrease the clinical substrates of lipids, hypertension, and glucotoxicity without elevating endogenous insulin or amylin) in order to decrease the progression of the disease. Second, we should now include in the treatment paradigm the use of folic acid and arginine supplementation. T2DM is now considered to be a coronary risk equivalent and therefore all patients with T2DM should be on folate supplementation, as well as, the non-diabetic atherosclerotic patient.

Those patients with persistent endothelial cell dysfunction after the standard goals have been reached should consider arginine supplementation and possibly should be considered even sooner in the treatment paradigm if there is a history or evidence of symptomatic peripheral arterial disease, congestive heart failure and / or diastolic dysfunction [17, 30, 31].

Folic acid – 5MTHF

This water soluble B vitamin has been recently gaining considerable attention due to its positive role in cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, neural tube defects, and cancer. Folic acid plays an important role in the remethylation of homocysteine and is thus capable of lowering elevated levels of homocysteine (figure 3) [32].

Figure 3
figure3

Hcy (demethylated Methionine) can enter the remethylation cycle with the aid of Folic Acid (5-Methyl-tetrahydrofolate) and the Folate cycle, the enzyme Methionine Synthase, and the necessary Cofactor B12. Folic Acid in addition to being a methyl-donor can serve as an electron or hydrogen donor to restore the required BH4 Cofactor to recouple the eNOS enzyme necessary for the production of eNO from L-arginine. Hcy may also enter the Transsulfuration Pathway with the assistance of Cystathionine Beta Synthase (CBS) enzyme and the necessary Cofactor B6 to form Cystathionine and Cysteine which can then be excreted in the urine or converted to the very important antioxidant Glutathione. The substrate Folic Acid and the Cofactors B6 and B12 are very important not only for improving hyperhomocysteinemia but also important for the recoupling of the BH4 cofactor to the eNOS enzyme for the production of eNO.

Full size image

Deficiency or impairment of folate metabolism is associated with hyperhomocysteinemia (hHcy), hypomethylation (the decreased one carbon unit transfer to purines and pyrimidines for DNA repair and biosynthesis), DNA damage, and impaired cell proliferation, malignancies, and impaired eNO production [33–37]. 5-MTHF is an electron donor, a hydrogen donor, and a methyl donor.

Each of these attributes confers a unique role to its function. In regards to the eNOS reaction it supplies both hydrogen and electrons to BH2 and BH3 to restore BH4 (the necessary cofactor for the eNOS reaction). This attribute allows the eNOS reaction to re-couple and restores the capability of this reaction to be once again a net producer of eNO and restores endothelial dependent vasodilatation in T2DM and hyperlipidemia [38]. Recently, the combination of folic acid, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6 was able to demonstrate a reduction of in-stent restenosis and recurrent events in up to one year follow up in the Swiss heart study [39–41].

The eNOS hypothesis

Is T2DM a vascular disease with a dysfunctional eNOS enzyme reaction, resulting in endothelial cell dysfunction and associated diminished eNO production? Is atheroscleropathy an early manifestation and hyperglycemia a later manifestation?

The following quote is pertinent to this discussion.

"Diabetes must take its place alongside the other major risk factors as important causes of cardiovascular disease. In fact, from the point of view of cardiovascular medicine, it may be appropriate to say: "diabetes is a cardiovascular disease" [42].

Implications of the hypothesis

Could it be that one of the polygenic causes of T2DM involve the eNOS enzyme? Such as one or more gene polymorphisms resulting in a defective but functioning eNOS enzyme. This would certainly help to explain the earlier discussed atheroscleropathy associated with T2DM.

This gene polymorphism could interact with the environment to produce an even more defective eNOS enzyme with increasing endothelial cell dysfunction. Smoking, obesity, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, sedentary life style are all known risk factors and all too often they cluster creating the metabolic syndrome with a markedly elevated tension of redox stress not only in the islet but also within the intima of the arterial vessel wall. A single amino acid substitution in the primary structure could have a considerable effect on the structure and function of this omnipotent enzyme and its reaction producing eNO.

Here is an example where a defective gene could be made much more impotent if there were additional stresses placed on it through a stressor molecule such as ADMA. This endogenously produced competitive inhibitor of L-arginine (as well as an endogenous inhibitor of the eNOS reaction) would cause the eNOS reaction to uncouple and become a net producer of superoxide even before the glucose becomes elevated, thus stressing the islet and the intima before hyperglycemia is detected. This is why we should consider stress testing (by utilizing the 75 gram oral 2 hour post prandial glucose tolerance test) the patient in order to detect impaired glucose tolerance (stage III table 9) in order to reduce the oxidative and postprandial reductive stress to these organs in order to spare them from the devastating natural progressive history of T2DM and atheroscleropathy. Exercise induced skeletal muscle glucose transport (GLUT 4) is eNOS dependent [43–45]. If the production of eNO were defective due to gene polymorphism and environmental interaction there would be increasing peripheral insulin resistance. This is just what Duplain and Scherrer were able to demonstrate in their eNOS -/- model: Insulin resistance, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia.

In humans with gene polymorphism the eNOS enzyme may be capable to withstand the many years of redox stress before the defect in eNOS becomes evident. However, if the stressors were of sufficient magnitude such as seen in the adolescent youth with sedentary life style plus high carbohydrate, high fat western diet (over nutrition) the manifestation of type 2 diabetes may become evident before the youth has reached the more normal middle age in life. This is just what we are experiencing in the USA. Not only are the adolescent youth developing T2DM at an alarming rate, but also, the age of onset of T2DM in adults is becoming younger and younger. It is entirely possible that these abnormal gene polymorphisms could be very old and have never caused a problem until there was sufficient changes in the environment (the thrifty gene hypothesis: gene – environmental interaction).

Peripheral insulin resistance would certainly place an undo burden on the pancreas with elevated levels of endogenous insulin and amylin with a chronically activated RAAS at the local organ-tissue levels.

The additional heightened redox stress and the A-FLIGHT toxicities associated with insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome would only aggravate the underlying eNOS polymorphisms by placing an undo burden on the islet and the intima.

Conclusion

"YOU CAN'T SEE THE FOREST FOR THE TREES"

If we approach T2DM as initially being a vascular disease for many years with glucotoxicity being a later manifestation, then as clinicians and researchers we may be more likely to view this disease in a global perspective.

The Steno-2 study by Gaede P et al. [46, 47] just published, revealed a significant reduction in cardiovascular and microvascular events of nearly 50%. Their intensified intervention against multiple risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes was quite impressive.

Therefore, in T2DM we should consider looking at the multiple toxicities and how they interact with each other to form "the whole disease" and return metabolic and redox homeostasis to the organism.

"We must protect the forests (the whole disease) for our children, grandchildren and children yet to be born. We must protect the forests for those who can't speak for themselves such as the birds, animals, fish and trees (and our patients)." --- Chief Edward Moody, Qwatsinas, Nuxalk Nation.

Abbreviations

atheroscleropathy:

Accelerated atherosclerosis

T2DM:

type 2 diabetes mellitus

NO:

nitric oxide

eNO:

endothelial nitric oxide

NOS:

nitric oxide synthase

nNOS:

neural NOS-1

iNOS:

inducible NOS-2

eNOS:

endothelial NOS-3

O2':

superoxide

BH4:

tetrahydrobiopterin

ADMA:

asymmetrical dimethylarginine

DDAH:

dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolose

PRMTs:

protein arginine N-methyltransferases

NAD(P)H:

nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate reduced

Glu298 → Asp GP:

glutamic 298 → aspartyl gene polymorphism

ONOO':

perioxynitrite

CAD:

coronary artery disease

IR:

insulin resistance

MS:

metabolic syndrome

PD:

prediabetes

Hcy:

homocysteine

hHcy:

hyperhomocysteinemia

RAAS:

renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system

A-FLIGHT acronym:

multiple metabolic toxicities of IR, MR, PD, and T2DM producing reactive oxygen species

ROS:

reactive oxygen species

5MTHF:

5-methyl tetrahydrofolate

5MTHF:

folic acid

GLUT 4:

glucose transporter 4

-/-:

gene knockout

References

  1. 1.

    Alderton WK, Cooper CE, Knowles RG: Nitric oxide synthases: structure, function and inhibition. Biochem J. 2001, 357 (Pt 3): 593-615. 10.1042/0264-6021:3570593.

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. 2.

    Lowenstein CJ, Glatt CS, Bredt DS, Snyder SH: Cloned and expressed macrophage nitric oxide synthase contrasts with the brain enzyme. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992, 89 (15): 6711-6715.

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. 3.

    Nishida K, Harrison DG, Navas JP, Fisher AA, Dockery SP, Uematsu M, Nerem RM, Alexander RW, Murphy TJ: Molecular cloning and characterization of the constitutive bovine aortic endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase. J Clin Invest. 1992, 90 (5): 2092-2096.

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. 4.

    Koshland DE: The molecule of the year. Science. 1992, 258 (5090): 1861.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. 5.

    Hayden MR: Atherosclerosis and plaque Angiogenesis: a malignant transformation. Submitted paper. Pathology and Clinical classification of Vulnerable Plaque.May 2001, http://www.vp.orghttp://www.vp.org/ResourceCenter/Pete_Hayden_Angiogenesis.html.

  6. 6.

    Guzik TJ, Mussa S, Gastaldi D, Sadowski J, Ratnatunga C, Pillai R, Channon KM: Mechanisms of increased vascular superoxide production in human diabetes mellitus: role of NAD(P)H oxidase and endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Circulation. 2002, 105 (14): 1656-1662. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000012748.58444.08.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. 7.

    Hayden MR, Tyagi SC: Islet redox stress: the manifold toxicities of insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome and amylin derived islet amyloid in type 2 diabetes mellitus. JOP J Pancreas (online). 2002, 3 (4): 86-108. [http://www.joplink.net]

    Google Scholar 

  8. 8.

    Hayden MR, Tyagi SC: Intimal Redox Stress: Accelerated atherosclerosis in metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Atheroscleropathy. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2002, 1:3: [http://www.cardiab.com]

    Google Scholar 

  9. 9.

    Hayden MR, Tyagi SC: Arterial vascular remodeling: the endothelial cell's central role. Mo Med. 1998, 95 (5): 213-217.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. 10.

    Hayden MR, Tyagi SC: Chapter. Atherosclerosis: Implications of angiotensin II and the AT-1 receptor. Angiotensin II Receptor Blockade: Physiological and Clinical Implications. Edited by: Dhalla NS, Zahradka P, Dixon I, Beamish R. 1998, Kluwer Academic publishers. Boston, Ma, 2: 233-243.

    Google Scholar 

  11. 11.

    Hayden MR, Tyagi SC: Arteriogenesis: Angiogenesis within Unstable Atherosclerotic Plaques – Interactions with Extracellular Matrix. Curr Interv Cardiol Rep. 2000, 2 (3): 218-227.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. 12.

    Hayden MR: Islet amyloid, metabolic syndrome, and the natural progressive history of type 2 diabetes mellitus. JOP J Pancreas (online). 2002, 3 (5): 86-108. [http://www.joplink.net]

    Google Scholar 

  13. 13.

    Kroncke KD, Fehsel K, Kolb-Bachofen V: Nitric oxide: cytotoxicity versus cytoprotection – how, why, when, and where?. Nitric Oxide. 1997, 1 (2): 107-120. 10.1006/niox.1997.0118.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. 14.

    Stuhlinger MC, Abbasi F, Chu JW, Lamendola C, McLaughlin TL, Cooke JP, Reaven GM, Tsao PS: Relationship between insulin resistance and an endogenous nitric oxide synthase inhibitor. JAMA. 2002, 287 (11): 1420-1426. 10.1001/jama.287.11.1420.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. 15.

    Cooke JP, Oka RK: Atherogenesis and the arginine hypothesis. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2001, 3 (3): 252-259.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. 16.

    Lin KY, Ito A, Asagami T, Tsao PS, Adimoolam S, Kimoto M, Tsuji H, Reaven GM, Cooke JP: Impaired nitric oxide synthase pathway in diabetes mellitus: role of asymmetric dimethylarginine and dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase. Circulation. 2002, 106 (8): 987-992. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000027109.14149.67.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. 17.

    Cooke JP: Does ADMA cause endothelial dysfunction?. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000, 20 (9): 2032-2037.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. 18.

    Nash DT: Insulin resistance, ADMA levels, and cardiovascular disease. JAMA. 2002, 287 (11): 1451-1452. 10.1001/jama.287.11.1451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. 19.

    Faldetta CM, Laurenti O, Desideri G, Bravi MC, DeLuca O, Marinucci MC, De Mattia G, Ferri C: L-arginine infusion decreases plasma total homocysteine concentrations through increased nitric oxide production and decreased oxidative status in type II diabetic patients. Diabetologia. 2002, 45: 1120-1127. 10.1007/s00125-002-0854-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. 20.

    Duplain H, Burcelin R, Sartori C, Cook S, Egli M, Lepori M, Vollenweider P, Pedrazzini T, Nicod P, Thorens B, Scherrer U: Insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension in mice lacking endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Circulation. 2001, 104: 342-345.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. 21.

    Miyamoto Y, Saito Y, Kajiyama N, Yoshimura M, Shimasaki Y, Nakayama M: Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is positively associated with essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1998, 32: 3-8.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. 22.

    Shimasaki Y, Vasue H, Yoshimura M, Nakayama M, Kaugiyama K, Ogawa H, Harada E, Masuda T, Koyama W, Saito Y, Miyamoto Y, Ogawa Y, Nakao K: Association of the missense Glu298Asp variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene with myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998, 31 (7): 1506-1510. 10.1016/S0735-1097(98)00167-3.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. 23.

    Hingorani AD, Liang CF, Fatibene J, Lyon Monteith AS, Parsons A, Haydock S, Hopper RV, Stephens NG, O'Shaughnessy KM, Brown MJ: A common variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Glu298 → Asp) is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease in the UK. Circulation. 1999, 100 (14): 1515-1520.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. 24.

    Colombo MG, Andreassi MG, Paradossi U, Botto N, Manfredi S, Massetti S, Rossi G, Clerico A, Biagini A: Evidence for association of a common variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene (Glu298 → Asp polymorphism) to the presence, extent, and severity of coronary artery disease. Heart. 2002, 87 (6): 525-528. 10.1136/heart.87.6.525.

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. 25.

    Veldman BA, Spiering W, Doevendans PA, Vervoort G, Kroon AA, De Leeuw PW, Smits P: The Glu298Asp polymorphism of the NOS 3 gene as a determinant of the baseline production of nitric oxide. J Hypertens. 2002, 20 (10): 2023-2027. 10.1097/00004872-200210000-00022.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. 26.

    Noiri E, Satoh H, Taguchi J, Brodsky SV, Nakao A, Ogawa Y, Nishijima S, Yokomizo T, Tokunaga K, Fujita T: Association of eNOS Glu298Asp polymorphism with end-stage renal disease. Hypertension. 2002, 40 (4): 535-540. 10.1161/01.HYP.0000033974.57407.82.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. 27.

    Werner-Felmayer G, Golderer G, Werner ER: Tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis, utilization and pharmacological effects. Current Drug Metabolism. 2002, 3: 159-173.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. 28.

    Doshi SN, McDowell IF, Moat SJ, Payne N, Durrant HJ, Lewis MJ, Goodfellow J: Folic acid improves endothelial function in coronary artery disease via mechanisms largely independent of homocysteine lowering. Circulation. 2002, 105 (1): 22-26. 10.1161/hc0102.101388.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. 29.

    Van Etten RW, De Koning EJ, Verhaar MC, Gaillard CA, Rabelink TJ: Impaired NO-dependent vasodilation in patients with Type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus is restored by acute administration of folate. Diabetologia. 2002, 45 (7): 1004-1010. 10.1007/s00125-002-0862-1.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. 30.

    Boger R, Bode-Boger S, Thiele W: Restoring vascular nitric oxide formation by L-arginine improves the symptoms of intermittent claudication in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998, 32: 1336-1344. 10.1016/S0735-1097(98)00375-1.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. 31.

    Maxwell AJ, Anderson BA, Cooke JP: Nutritional therapy for peripherial arterial disease: A double blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of HeartBar. Vasc Med. 2000, 5: 11-19. 10.1191/135886300676721584.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. 32.

    Tyagi SC: Homocyst(e)ine and heart disease: Pathophysiology of extracellular matrix. Clin Exper Hypertens. 1999, 21 (3): 181-198.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  33. 33.

    Miller A, Mujumdar V, Palmer L, Bower JD, Tyagi SC: Reversal of endocardial endothelial dysfunction by folic acid in homocysteinemic hypertensive rats. Am J Hypertens. 2002, 15 (2 Pt 1): 157-163. 10.1016/S0895-7061(01)02286-5.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. 34.

    Mujumdar VS, Tummalapalli CM, Aru GM, Tyagi SC: Mechanism of constrictive vascular remodeling by homocysteine: role of PPAR. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2002, 282 (5): C1009-1015.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. 35.

    Mujumdar VS, Aru GM, Tyagi SC: Induction of oxidative stress by homocyst(e)ine impairs endothelial function. J Cell Biochem. 2001, 82 (3): 491-500. 10.1002/jcb.1175.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. 36.

    Mujumdar VS, Hayden MR, Tyagi SC: Homocyst(e)ine induces calcium second messenger in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Cell Physiol. 2000, 183 (1): 28-36. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4652(200004)183:1<28::AID-JCP4>3.0.CO;2-O.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. 37.

    Miller A, Mujumdar V, Shek E, Guillot J, Angelo M, Palmer L, Tyagi SC: Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia induces multi organ damage. Heart Vessels. 2000, 15 (3): 135-143. 10.1007/s003800070030.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. 38.

    Stanger O: Physiology of folic acid in health and disease. Current Drug Metabolsim. 2002, 3 (2): 211-223.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  39. 39.

    Schnyder G, Roffi M, Flammer Y, Pin R, Hess OM: Effect of homocysteine-lowering therapy with folic Acid, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6 on clinical outcome after percutaneous coronary intervention: the swiss heart study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002, 288 (8): 973-979. 10.1001/jama.288.8.973.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. 40.

    Schnyder G, Roffi M, Flammer Y, Pin R, Hess OM: Association of plasma homocysteine with restenosis after percutaneous coronary angioplasty. Eur Heart J. 2002, 23 (9): 726-33. 10.1053/euhj.2001.2962.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. 41.

    Schnyder G, Roffi M, Pin R, Flammer Y, Lange H, Eberli FR, Meier B, Turi ZG, Hess OM: Decreased rate of coronary restenosis after lowering of plasma homocysteine levels. N Engl J Med. 2001, 345 (22): 1593-600. 10.1056/NEJMoa011364.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. 42.

    Grundy SM, Benjamin IJ, Burke GL, Chait A, Eckel RH, Howard BV, Mitch W, Smith SC, Sowers JR: Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 1999, 100: 1134-1146.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. 43.

    Roy D, Perreault M, Marette A: Insulin stimulation of glucose uptake in skeletal muscles and adipose tissues in vivo is NO dependent. AJP-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1998, 274 (4): E692-E699.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. 44.

    Kapur S, Bedard S, Marcotte B, Cote CH, Marette A: Expression of nitric oxide synthase in skeletal muscle: a novel role for nitric oxide as a modulator of insulin action. Diabetes. 1997, 46 (11): 1691-1700.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. 45.

    Shiuchi T, Cui TX, Wu L, Nakagami H, Takeda-Matsubara Y, Iwai M, Horiuchi M: ACE inhibitor improves insulin resistance in diabetic mouse via bradykinin and NO. Hypertension. 2002, 40 (3): 329-334. 10.1161/01.HYP.0000028979.98877.0C.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. 46.

    Gæde P, Vedel P, Larsen N, Jensen GV, Parving HH, Pedersen O: Multifactorial intervention and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2003, 348: 383-393. 10.1056/NEJMoa021778.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. 47.

    Solomon CG: Reducing cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2003, 348: 457-459. 10.1056/NEJMe020172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge James R. Sowers, M.D. FACP, Professor and his department (Departments of Medicine and Cell Biology Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, State University of New York Health Science Center, Brooklyn, New York) for their inspiration in writing this manuscript.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri, PO BOX 1140 Lk. Rd. 5-87, Camdenton, Missouri, 65020, USA

    Melvin R Hayden

  2. Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, 39216-4505, USA

    Suresh C Tyagi

Authors
  1. Melvin R Hayden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Suresh C Tyagi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melvin R Hayden.

Additional information

Competing interests

None declared.

Authors' Contributions

MH and ST collaborated equally on this article. MH wrote and edited this article. ST collaborated on writing and editing this article.

Authors’ original submitted files for images

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hayden, M.R., Tyagi, S.C. Is type 2 diabetes mellitus a vascular disease (atheroscleropathy) with hyperglycemia a late manifestation? The role of NOS, NO, and redox stress.. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2, 2 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2840-2-2

Download citation

Keywords

  • ADMA
  • Atherosclerosis
  • Folic Acid
  • Oxidative stress
  • Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
  • endothelial Nitric Oxide (eNO)
  • endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) (NOS-3)

Cardiovascular Diabetology

ISSN: 1475-2840