Fig. 4

Effects of PA and L-PA on glucose metabolism and transcriptional changes in hepatocytes. A Glucose consumption in HepaRG cells influenced by metabolites at different concentrations over a period of 60 h. B Intracellular ATP levels and C intracellular lactate levels under the same conditions. Multiple group comparisons were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significance is indicated by * for P < 0.05 and ** for P < 0.01. D Principal component analysis (PCA) visually depicts the differences between groups after PA and L-PA intervention. E Venn diagram shows the overlap of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the comparison groups (NC vs. PA) and (NC vs. L-PA). F, G Volcano plots show the DEGs for the comparison groups (NC vs. PA) and (NC vs. L-PA), respectively, with DEGs with FDR < 0.05 labeled. H, I KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of DEGs from the comparison groups (NC vs. PA) and (NC vs. L-PA). The x-axis indicates the percentage of DEGs relative to the total genes in the pathway (expressed in %), with numbers in parentheses representing -log10 (p-value)