| Women | Men | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NGM n = 1103 | Prediabetes n = 236 | Type 2 diabetes n = 315 | NGM n = 821 | Prediabetes n = 275 | Type 2 diabetes n = 660 | |
Demographics | ||||||
Age (years) | 57.3 ± 8.0 | 60.9 ± 7.9 | 62.0 ± 8.1 | 58.7 ± 8.4 | 62.1 ± 7.2 | 63.0 ± 7.5 |
Educational level | ||||||
  Low, N (%) | 338 (31.2) | 91 (39.9) | 181 (59.0) | 168 (20.7) | 84 (31.1) | 258 (40.5) |
  Middle, N (%) | 295 (27.2) | 69 (30.3) | 77 (25.1) | 236 (29.1) | 79 (29.3) | 185 (29.0) |
  High, N (%) | 451 (41.6) | 68 (29.8) | 49 (16.0) | 408 (50.2) | 107 (39.6) | 194 (30.5) |
Postmenopausal women, N (%) | 810 (75.6) | 186 (83.0) | 265 (87.5) | NA | NA | NA |
 Hormone replacement therapy, N (%) | 27 (2.5) | 3 (1.3) | 5 (1.6) | NA | NA | NA |
Clinical characteristics | ||||||
 Fasting glucose (mmol/l) | 5.1 [4.8–5.4] | 5.7 [5.3–6.2] | 7.3 [6.4–8.1] | 5.3 [5.0–5.6] | 6.1 [5.7–6.4] | 7.6 [6.9–8.8] |
 2-h postload glucose (mmol/l)a | 5.4 [4.6–6.2] | 8.7 [7.9–9.5] | 14.4 [11.8–17.5] | 5.4 [4.5–6.2] | 8.1 [6.4–9.2] | 14.4 [11.9–16.8] |
 HbA1c (%) | 5.5 ± 0.3 | 5.7 ± 0.4 | 6.8 ± 1.0 | 5.4 ± 0.3 | 5.7 ± 0.4 | 7.0 ± 1.1 |
 HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 36.1 ± 3.7 | 38.8 ± 4.2 | 51.0 ± 11.2 | 36.0 ± 3.7 | 38.8 ± 4.7 | 52.7 ± 11.8 |
 Fasting insulin (pmol/l) | 50.1 [36.4–68.6] | 71.9 [46.9–106.3] | 87.5 [55.8–141.6] | 57.8 [41.7–81.0] | 72.5 [53.3–113.8] | 83.9 [49.4–130.0] |
 Glucose-lowering medication, N (%) | NA | NA | 237 (75.2) | NA | NA | 529 (80.2) |
 Diabetes duration (years) | NA | NA | 4.0 [1.0;9.0] | NA | NA | 5.0 [2.0;12.0] |
Cardiovascular risk factors | ||||||
 History of CVD, N (%) | 130 (12.0) | 29 (12.4) | 67 (22.0) | 94 (11.5) | 42 (15.4) | 199 (31.1) |
 BMI (kg/m2) | 25.1 ± 3.8 | 27.5 ± 4.7 | 30.4 ± 5.7 | 26.2 ± 3.2 | 28.0 ± 3.7 | 29.6 ± 4.6 |
 Waist circumference (cm) | 86.1 ± 10.2 | 93.2 ± 12.5 | 101.7 ± 14.4 | 96.3 ± 9.5 | 102.3 ± 10.5 | 107.8 ± 12.6 |
 Office SBP (mmHg) | 126.6 ± 16.9 | 134.2 ± 16.6 | 139.1 ± 17.6 | 136.1 ± 16.2 | 140.1 ± 16.9 | 144.0 ± 18.1 |
 Office DBP (mmHg) | 73.0 ± 9.5 | 75.7 ± 9.1 | 75.4 ± 9.0 | 78.2 ± 9.6 | 80.0 ± 9.5 | 78.1 ± 9.8 |
 Antihypertensive medication use, N (%) | 209 (18.9) | 100 (42.4) | 224 (71.1) | 220 (26.8) | 134 (48.7) | 482 (73.0) |
 Total/HDL cholesterol ratio | 3.3 ± 1.0 | 3.7 ± 1.2 | 3.5 ± 1.1 | 4.0 ± 1.3 | 4.0 ± 1.2 | 3.8 ± 1.1 |
 Triglycerides (mmol/l) | 1.02 [0.77–1.36] | 1.34 [1.02–1.82] | 1.54 [1.11–2.12] | 1.13 [0.85–1.57] | 1.35 [1.01–1.84] | 1.53 [1.13–2.14] |
 Lipid-modifying medication use, N (%) | 145 (13.1) | 67 (28.4) | 229 (72.7) | 181 (22.0) | 110 (40.0) | 499 (75.6) |
Smoking | ||||||
  Never, N (%) | 434 (39.8) | 81 (34.8) | 115 (37.6) | 310 (37.9) | 68 (25.0) | 154 (24.0) |
  Former, N (%) | 523 (47.9) | 121 (51.9) | 142 (46.4) | 396 (48.5) | 171 (62.9) | 385 (60.0) |
  Current, N (%) | 134 (12.3) | 31 (13.3) | 49 (16.0) | 111 (13.6) | 33 (12.1) | 103 (16.0) |
Alcohol use | ||||||
  None, N (%) | 192 (17.6) | 56 (23.9) | 154 (50.2) | 70 (8.6) | 24 (8.8) | 135 (21.0) |
  Low, N (%) | 568 (52.1) | 105 (44.9) | 109 (35.5) | 550 (67.3) | 165 (60.7) | 369 (57.4) |
  High, N (%) | 330 (30.3) | 73 (31.2) | 44 (14.3) | 197 (24.1) | 83 (30.5) | 139 (21.6) |
Physical activity | ||||||
  Total self-reported physical activity (hours/week) | 16.3 ± 8.1 | 16.1 ± 7.4 | 14.0 ± 7.7 | 13.3 ± 8.0 | 12.2 ± 7.8 | 11.3 ± 7.6 |
Dutch Healthy Diet Index | 88.43 ± 13.66 | 86.93 ± 13.99 | 84.71 ± 13.91 | 80.49 ± 14.45 | 78.22 ± 14.95 | 78.03 ± 14.04 |
Microvascular complications and retinal measures | ||||||
 Presence of microvascular diseaseb, N (%) | 91 (11.4) | 27 (15.1) | 84 (32.8) | 99 (16.5) | 56 (28.3) | 272 (51.5) |
Nephropathy c | 45 (4.1) | 14 (5.9) | 57 (18.2) | 57 (6.9) | 32 (11.6) | 170 (25.8) |
 eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 | 20 (1.8) | 6 (2.6) | 30 (9.6) | 13 (1.6) | 14 (5.1) | 60 (9.2) |
 eGRF (ml/min/1.73 m2) | 90.07 ± 13.27 | 87.17 ± 14.22 | 84.17 ± 17.57 | 90.38 ± 13.26 | 86.15 ± 14.10 | 84.96 ± 17.14 |
 Albuminuria (> 30 mg urinary albumin excretion per 24 h) | 27 (2.6) | 10 (4.6) | 35 (12.4) | 51 (6.7) | 22 (8.6) | 129 (21.7) |
 Albumin excretion (mg/24 h) | 5.84 [3.67–9.35] | 5.86 [3.87–10.01] | 7.56 [4.76–15.32] | 6.18 [3.76–10.25] | 7.20 [4.47–11.35] | 11.19 [6.00–25.21] |
 History of kidney transplantation, N (%) | 2 (0.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
 History of hemodialysis, N (%) | 1 (0.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
Sensory neuropathy d | 136 (12.4) | 47 (20.2) | 92 (29.4) | 96 (11.7) | 43 (15.6) | 222 (34.3) |
 Neuropathic pain, N (%) | 74 (6.9) | 28 (12.3) | 59 (20.3) | 45 (5.5) | 17 (6.3) | 112 (18.2) |
 Impaired unilateral vibration perception, N (%) | 33 (3.4) | 10 (5.1) | 22 (7.8) | 35 (4.9) | 17 (7.5) | 65 (11.7) |
 Impaired bilateral vibration perception, N (%) | 20 (2.1) | 7 (3.5) | 15 (5.3) | 20 (2.8) | 9 (3.9) | 70 (12.6) |
 Mean neurothesiometer outcome on the right and left first toe (Volt) | 8.75 (6.25;12.60) | 9.85 (7.00;14.25) | 10.45 (7.74;16.35) | 11.48 (7.40;16.58) | 12.20 (8.95;18.95) | 15.40 (9.85;23.43) |
Retinopathy | 1 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | 9 (3.1) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.4) | 35 (5.7) |
Retinal microvasculature vessel diameters | ||||||
  Central retinal arteriolar equivalent (µm) | 145.44 ± 19.72 | 144.63 ± 20.67 | 144.49 ± 19.95 | 139.05 ± 20.13 | 138.31 ± 19.36 | 140.44 ± 21.52 |
  Central retinal venular equivalent (µm) | 216.44 ± 29.71 | 219.77 ± 32.92 | 218.54 ± 31.29 | 210.07 ± 31.51 | 212.91 ± 29.80 | 214.36 ± 33.06 |
Flicker light-induced arteriolar and venular dilation | ||||||
  Flicker light-induced arteriolar dilation (%) | 3.32 ± 2.81 | 2.84 ± 2.68 | 2.51 ± 2.69 | 3.46 ± 2.84 | 3.14 ± 2.80 | 2.20 ± 2.60 |
  Flicker light-induced venular dilation (%) | 4.05 ± 2.17 | 4.09 ± 2.22 | 3.86 ± 2.45 | 3.82 ± 2.17 | 4.01 ± 2.23 | 3.49 ± 2.18 |