Table 4 Prospective biomarkers for GDM diagnosis
Protein biomarker | Main proposed origin | Week of pregnancy | Change in GDM | Metabolic- and cardiovascular-related properties |
|---|---|---|---|---|
FGF-23 | Adipose, liver | 24–28th | Higher | Arterial stiffness Left ventricular hypertrophy |
FGF-21 | Liver, placenta | 24–28th | Higher | Reduction of diabetes-associated vascular injury Stimulation of glucose uptake Arterial fibrosis |
TNFα | Macrophages (adipose, placenta) | 24–28th | Higher | Pro-inflammatory Insulin resistance Glut4 downregulation |
PAI-1 | Artery, placenta, adipose | 24–28th | Higher | Inhibition of plasminogen Migration of vascular cells |
Fetuin-B | Liver, placenta, fetal tissues | 24–28th | Higher | Modulation of the insulin receptor Systemic inflammation |
Follistatin | Gonadal, intestine, placenta | 26th | Lower | Antagonism of activin-A Reduction of cardiac ischaemia–reperfusion injury |