Table 2 Key proinflammatory cytokines and adipokines and their potential role in COPD and DM (Adapted from references #) [[38–77]]
From: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and glucose metabolism: a bitter sweet symphony
Name | Major origin | Physiological function | Data on COPD | Data on DM |
|---|---|---|---|---|
CRP | Liver/Hepatocyte | Proinflammatory. | COPD is independently associated with increased levels of CRP. Moreover, CRP may predict the future onset of COPD. | Elevated CRP levels may predict the development of onset of type 2 DM. |
TNF-α | Macrophages, other leukocytes and adipocytes | Proinflammatory and proapoptotic. Possible insulin antagonism. | COPD is independently associated with increased levels of TNF-α | May be a risk factor for the development of new onset type 2 DM. |
IL-1 | Macrophages, other leukocytes, dendritic cells etc. | Proinflammatory. Lymphocyte activation | IL-1 is implicated in the pathogenesis of COPD related inflammation. | An increase in IL-1β may predict the development of new onset type 2 DM. |
IL-6 | Lvier/Hepatocyte, macrophages, other leukocytes, adipocytes etc. | Proinflammatory. Upregulation of the synthesis of CRP and other proinflammatory cytokines in the liver. | COPD is independently associated with increased levels of IL-6. | IL-6 was shown to increase the risk for the new onset type 2 DM. |
Fibrinogen | Liver/Hepatocyte | Proinflammatory. Active participation in coagulation. | COPD is independently associated with increased fibrinogen levels. | No data on fibrinogen and the risk of new onset type 2 DM. |
Leptin | Adipocyte | Appetite regulation. Possible proinflammatory actions. | Leptin levels are increased in patients with COPD. May contribute to COPD related weight loss and pulmonary function decline. | Leptin may increase the risk of type 2 DM. Leptin may participate in the development of DM related complications via its proinflammatory actions. |
Adiponectin | Adipocyte | Antiinflammatory. Increase in insulin synthesis and increase in insulin sensitivity. | Adiponectin levels are increased in patients with COPD and low BMI, which may explain decreased mortality from cardiovascular causes in advanced COPD. | Adiponectin may prevent the development of type 2 DM via its anti-inflammatory and proinsulin actions. |
Resistin | Leukocytes | Proinflammatory and insulin antagonizing actions. | Resistin levels may be increased in COPD and mediate IR. | Resistin may directly participate in the development of IR. |